Becoming a U.S. citizen costs thousands of dollars and often takes years. A new study from The Mendoza Law Firm finds that the investment tends to pay off for applicants and for the country as a whole. Yet the study also finds that the cost of citizenship keeps rising at the same time that major industries face worker shortages and depend on immigrant labor.
The earnings gap is large. According to a Migration Policy Institute analysis, noncitizen immigrant men earn a median of $46,000 a year (about $22.12 an hour full time) and noncitizen women earn $38,000 (about $18.27). Naturalized citizens earn much more: $67,000 for men (about $32.21 an hour) and $54,000 for women (about $25.96). That is about 46% more for men and 42% more for women. The median naturalized household earns $84,000, $20,000 more than the median noncitizen household. Research that followed the same people over time found that naturalization is linked to an 8.9% increase in earnings, even after accounting for education, skills, and English ability.
Immigrant workers are central to the U.S. economy. Foreign-born workers made up 19.2% of the labor force in 2024. Immigrants produced about 18% of total U.S. economic output in 2023, or $2.1 trillion, while making up about 14% of the population. The Congressional Budget Office projects that expected immigration over the next decade will add nearly $9 trillion to U.S. GDP by 2034.
Several industries depend especially heavily on immigrants. Construction relies on them more than any other sector: foreign-born workers make up 29.8% of its workforce, about 3.5 million people, and the industry faced a projected shortage of 500,000 workers in 2025 alone. Immigrants make up 24.4% of workers in transportation and utilities, 22.8% in both “other services” and professional and business services, and nearly 22% in agriculture. In some farm jobs, such as crop graders and sorters, immigrants fill more than half the positions. In healthcare, immigrants hold 16% of nursing jobs and 28% of health aide positions, roles expected to become more essential as the population ages. The study notes that the industries with the biggest labor shortages are often the ones that rely most on immigrant workers.
Where immigrants live also affects their financial outcomes. A 2026 analysis ranked states on conditions for immigrants, including employment, entrepreneurship, income gaps, job growth, and cost of living. South Dakota, Arkansas, Missouri, North Dakota, and Idaho took the top five spots, and none of them is a major immigrant destination. Meanwhile, three of the country’s largest immigrant destinations ranked near the bottom: California 49th, New York 48th, and Florida 46th. For many families, the places they have traditionally settled and the places where they may do best economically are not the same.
Meanwhile, the cost of getting there keeps climbing. More than 818,500 people became citizens in 2024. The naturalization application currently costs $710 online or $760 on paper, and a June 2026 DHS proposal would raise those fees by roughly 75%, to $1,280 and $1,330. With legal help, translations, and other supporting costs, naturalization typically costs $2,300 to $4,000. A marriage based green card, often an earlier step on the path to citizenship, can cost $7,500 to $10,500 once attorney fees and medical exams are included. A 2022 survey found that 87% of newly naturalized citizens borrowed money to cover these costs.
The study concludes that the U.S. is making the path to citizenship more expensive while still relying on the people who take it. If costs keep rising faster than applicants can manage, the study warns, both future citizens and the industries that depend on them could lose out.
